Participants:
Series Code: EI
Program Code: EI190003S
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00:36 Hello everyone, and welcome to Evolution Impossible.
00:39 I'm Sven string. 00:41 If this is the first time you've joined us, 00:43 we're going on an exciting journey of discovery to find out 00:46 whether evolution, one of the biggest explanations 00:48 for the origin of life, is really possible. 00:52 I'm glad to be able to welcome Dr. John Ashton with us today. 00:55 Good to have you. 00:57 We've got Melvin Sandelin as well, 00:58 That's for joining us this time. 01:00 We've got Blair Lemke, a great leader of young adults. 01:04 We've got Tim Turner as well. 01:05 Thanks for joining us. 01:07 You know, when Isaac Newton looked back over his 01:09 amazing career as a scientist, he said that he felt just like 01:14 a boy playing on the seashore finding pebbles and shells 01:18 when a whole ocean lay before him. 01:20 Every scientist is very willing to recognize there is still 01:24 a lot to be discovered in science. 01:27 The same is true of Darwin. 01:29 The big thing that he knew very little about was actually 01:33 very, very tiny. 01:34 It's the living cell. 01:36 And the big question we are going to address is: 01:39 How did life begin? 01:41 And so, Blair, just wanted to ask you, when you were 01:44 back in your science classes in school, 01:47 what did you learn about in terms of how life began? 01:51 Yeah, this is taking me back. 01:53 But yeah, look, cells, there was the big bang theory. 01:58 The idea that, you know, life just spontaneously erupted 02:02 or emerged from nothing. 02:04 And then that kind of formulated into order. 02:09 - Quite a theory. - What about you, Tim? 02:12 What did you learn about how life began 02:14 when you did science? 02:15 Well, my experience was actually more of a, 02:19 "Let's see how much we can blow up." 02:21 That was pre-September 11. 02:23 So I wasn't really paying much attention to 02:24 how things came to be. 02:26 So it was a bit of big bang as well? 02:27 ~ I like bangs. - Yeah, fantastic. 02:29 Melvin, tell us, what did you learn about in science? 02:32 Yeah, same thing. 02:34 I think it's something that most students will recognize. 02:36 That it's just not even questioned. 02:38 It's just everything started with nothing. 02:42 And big bang, give it billions of years, and there's life. 02:46 And that's where we are. 02:48 But what did they say how life itself began? 02:51 That's the question. 02:53 I think, I haven't paid too much attention to it because 02:57 they didn't really narrow in on it much, because 03:00 it was just something that was understood that 03:03 life can come from no life. 03:05 So all of a sudden, there's a cell, and it duplicates. 03:09 And all of a sudden, that duplicates, and duplicates. 03:11 And yeah, more complex organisms can take shape. 03:15 Yeah, well thank you very much. 03:16 I mean, this is the, I guess, the general understanding, 03:19 perhaps we can say. 03:20 So John, in terms of Darwin himself, 03:24 how did he say life began, life itself began? 03:29 Well, he didn't have an answer for that. 03:31 And he said the first organism was something into which 03:34 life was initially breathed, you know. 03:37 So it came about. 03:39 And it's very interesting the comments that have been made, 03:41 because that's exactly what the textbooks say. 03:45 That there was the big bang, and the earth, you know, formed 03:51 about 4.5 billion years ago, and cooled down. 03:55 And some books say sometime thereafter life arose. 04:00 There was some research done where they dated 04:02 some filament type fossils at about 3.5 billion years. 04:08 I think that might have been fossils 04:09 actually found in Australia. 04:11 And they said, well okay, so life must be 04:14 a little bit older than that. 04:16 So the put a figure about 3,800 million years. 04:22 But nobody knows how. 04:23 They just say it happened because we're here. 04:28 Yeah, so it's one of the challenging problems of science, 04:31 because to date there's no known mechanism 04:33 of how non-living chemicals could form a living organism. 04:38 And the big issues is that the living cell, that first 04:42 supposedly living cell, where did it come from? 04:45 And that is something that Darwin 04:47 didn't really understand himself. 04:48 So back to you, Blair, just in terms of your understanding, 04:53 what do you understand the living cell to be made of? 04:56 What is it like on the inside? 04:58 Yeah, look, I was taught that the cells were the basic 05:02 building blocks of life, back in high school. 05:05 And you know, made up with the cell membrane, 05:07 and then inside you've got your nucleus, 05:11 mitochondria, the cytoplasm; all these kinds of little 05:15 bits and pieces inside the cell that kind of make it operate 05:17 and work and be able to function. 05:20 Yeah, I remember seeing these, you know, diagrams in the 05:22 textbooks that had all the information in there. 05:25 It's pretty amazing. 05:27 And the interesting thing, Blair, is that you know, 05:29 even though you've gone onto other career pathways, 05:33 you know more about the living cell than Darwin did. 05:36 So John, tell us, describe for us what's inside 05:39 this living cell, this tiny building block of life. 05:44 Yes, well, one of the challenges that we have today 05:49 is we're continuing to understand the 05:52 biochemistry in the cell. 05:53 So when Darwin proposed his theory, 05:56 DNA hadn't been discovered at that time. 05:59 ~ So when was DNA discovered? 06:02 In the early 1950's it was really elucidated. 06:05 It's structure was understood in the early 1950's. 06:08 So about 100 years after Darwin. 06:10 So yes, nearly 100 years after Darwin. 06:12 And then, of course, we now know that DNA encodes 06:16 all the information required to build that functioning cell. 06:20 So if we go back to, if life has to form in the plant, 06:27 so we have, you know, the plant forms, and it's supposed to be 06:30 water and minerals, and these sort of things, 06:33 and maybe lightning strikes. 06:35 Some of us have heard about the Miller-Urey experiment 06:37 where they put some basic gases together 06:41 and zotted them with high electrical voltages, 06:44 and they produced a few nitrogen containing molecules. 06:48 And this is very important because nitrogen is an essential 06:50 element in what we call, amino acids, 06:53 which are the building blocks in the code, in the DNA code, 06:56 the building blocks in proteins, 06:58 and they're very functional in the cell. 07:00 And these are different to the long carbon chain 07:03 polymer type compounds as well 07:06 that involve carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 07:09 So also in the living cell, of course, 07:11 we've got other minerals. 07:13 So somehow in some sort of environment 07:15 all these chemicals have to come together. 07:17 And they have to arrange themselves. 07:20 Now scientists have been doing experiments trying to 07:22 form these long chain polymer molecules. 07:24 Because to make the cell, to make the cell membrane 07:27 and this sort of thing, we can't just have 07:30 little molecules that are only made of, you know, 07:32 a few hundred atoms. 07:33 They've got to be made of thousands of atoms. 07:34 They've got to be, what we call, these long chain biopolymers. 07:37 No, they're really, really long molecules. 07:40 So science has been looking at, you know, how can these form? 07:44 How can we make these in the laboratory? 07:46 And the experiments haven't been very successful. 07:48 They've been able to make relatively these short ones, 07:51 but not the real long ones. 07:53 But there's another problem. 07:55 If we look at the basic structure of the cell, 07:57 we're not just making one or two of these long molecules 08:00 for it to exist. 08:01 We've actually got to make millions of identical 08:05 long chain molecules that have to form. 08:07 And I think this is something that people miss 08:10 in this whole scenario of this first living organism formed. 08:14 It requires lots of molecules. 08:17 Millions of molecules, of which millions have to be identical, 08:23 but to different patterns. 08:25 So you've got to have millions of this pattern, 08:27 millions of that pattern, millions of that pattern. 08:29 And then these somehow have to assemble into a viable structure 08:34 all by themselves, which is a massive problem. 08:37 So all those molecules that have to randomly form, 08:40 millions of them have to randomly form identical, 08:44 they then have to somehow associate and come together. 08:47 And say that somehow did happen, we then have another major 08:52 problem in that, how can the cell replicate? 08:55 Somehow there's got to be a plan or a blueprint, 08:58 otherwise, it's not going to replicate the same. 09:01 And that, of course, is the DNA code. 09:03 So you've got this amazing situation, that somehow 09:08 this molecule has to form. 09:09 And then another amazing molecule has to form, 09:13 writing a code just based on four amino acids 09:17 that we symbolize with A, C, T, and G... 09:19 Australian Capitol Territory is Good. 09:21 So you can remember them. 09:23 ...that represents a code that makes 09:27 that molecule that is formed. 09:28 So how can it know that? 09:30 And even if we had that, even if we had that code 09:34 miraculously formed, and that code even for the simplest 09:37 organism, I think they would say, would require at least 09:42 250 to 400 genes. 09:44 And each of these genes are going to have 09:47 thousands of base pairs in them, or code letters in them. 09:50 So we've got quite a massive amount of information 09:53 when you multiply that all together. 09:55 You're looking at over 400,000 pieces of code 09:59 that would be required. 10:00 And that's in this language. 10:02 But that's useless unless you have a code reader. 10:05 And the code reader is what we call, the ribosome. 10:10 And the structure of the ribosome is so complex that 10:14 its structure was only elucidated in 2009. 10:19 So that's not that long ago. 10:21 The number of scientists working on that got the Nobel Prize. 10:25 Now this structure is composed of over 300,000 10:32 atoms arranged in a specific order. 10:37 And it's a code reader that's specific to read that DNA code 10:42 using those letters A, C, T, and G. 10:46 And so, the whole thing wouldn't work unless that code is read. 10:49 So you've got this amazing molecule that also 10:52 has to arise by chance to read that code. 10:57 But there's more. 10:58 For the molecule, for the first cell to replicate, 11:02 the code to make another ribosome has to be there. 11:06 So the code to make the code reading machine 11:10 it already in the code. 11:12 But it's useless unless there is a code reading 11:15 machine already there. 11:17 So even from this point we can see, for the first living cell 11:21 to form by itself under natural processes, according to the 11:25 laws of physics and chemistry that we know today, 11:28 it's absolutely impossible. 11:30 So it's really sort of a chicken and egg kind of situation. 11:32 You know, which came first, the code or the code reader? 11:35 And you know, you're in a real kind of bind. 11:38 Would you say that's correct? 11:39 Ah, it's a massive problem. 11:41 It's even greater than that. 11:42 Because even if you had all those together... 11:45 And I haven't even mentioned all the specific 11:48 long large enzyme type molecules. 11:51 So these are large combinations of amino acids; 11:53 fats and sugars, and so forth, 11:55 that catalyze specific chemical reactions. 11:58 They all have to be there. 12:00 And in the simplest cell, there would be hundreds of those 12:02 required, often using specialized minerals 12:06 to be part of their structure. 12:07 So they all have to come together as well. 12:09 As well as all these big structures to make 12:11 the membranes, and so forth. 12:13 But even if we had all those, it would still be dead. 12:17 It wouldn't be alive. 12:18 So even if all these things came together, 12:20 it wouldn't be alive, they'd just be chemicals. 12:23 So how do you switch it on? 12:24 How do you turn this living cell on? 12:25 Right, and this again is the other more than 12:31 multi-million dollar question. 12:32 It's more than multi-universe question, really. 12:36 Because what happens is, to make that thing alive 12:41 you have to have a whole lot of chemical reactions 12:45 in place just out of balance by the right amount 12:48 so that the metabolism or the end product of one 12:52 biochemical reaction is produced at just the right level 12:56 to produce the next biochemical reaction, 12:59 that produces the next products to produce 13:01 just the right level for the next reaction, and so forth, 13:04 through hundreds of reactions producing just the right 13:07 amount of chemical for the very first reaction. 13:10 And so you have this cyclic complex of hundreds of 13:15 biochemical reactions all interconnected 13:18 that all have to be out of balance by just 13:21 the right amount simultaneously. 13:24 Which is absolutely impossible. 13:26 You know, and scientists recognize that 13:28 it's impossible to do. 13:30 And yet, changing just one little chemical reaction 13:34 will kill the cell. 13:36 So you're really starting to blow us away with your 13:39 mind-boggling description of the living cell. 13:42 Just wondering if you guys had any questions for John today. 13:47 Blair, do you have any thoughts or comments 13:49 on what John's been saying? 13:51 You kind of mentioned there the impossibility of, 13:55 I guess, a living organism coming out of non-living matter. 13:59 And yet, the scientific world, even though there's no mechanism 14:04 to prove how this could happen or show how it could work, 14:07 still assumes that it does happen. 14:10 So I guess one question that I have is, 14:13 this is a huge assumption to make. 14:15 How are scientists comfortable with making such a large 14:19 assumption, which if it's not true, completely undermines 14:24 the theory of evolution? 14:26 Well, that's exactly right. 14:27 So there's a couple of explanations for this. 14:29 And I noticed that some of my detractors say, 14:33 "Well, hey John, your book is on the theory of evolution. 14:37 Evolution doesn't attempt to account for how live began." 14:41 So they totally say, "Well, that's not a fair question 14:44 because that's outside of evolution." 14:45 But really, it's chemical evolution. 14:48 And it's interesting that one of the first proponents, 14:50 well not so much the first proponents 14:52 of chemical evolution, but one of the first authors 14:54 of a textbook attempting to explain chemical evolution 14:58 was Dean Kenyon, who was a professor of biology 15:03 at San Francisco State University, I think. 15:07 ~ And he was focusing on chemical evolution. 15:09 - This is the thing, how... - How do you get life? 15:11 That's right. How do you get life from non-living chemicals? 15:14 And how did it go? 15:16 Well, it's quite fascinating that he became 15:18 a young earth creationist. 15:21 And he certainly started as an evolutionist. 15:25 So this is, you know, we have powerful evidence. 15:29 Now, why is it not accepted? 15:30 Now it's very interesting, you've got scientists like, say, 15:33 Sir Fred Hoyle, the famous astronomer 15:36 who was very good at math, and he recognized that it was 15:38 absolutely impossible from a statistical point of view. 15:41 And so he and, I think, a mathematician friend of his 15:46 from the University of Ceylon wrote a book, 15:48 Evolution From Space. 15:50 And so they said, "Well the first life must have somehow 15:53 come here from outer space." 15:55 But it really doesn't change anything, because we believe 15:58 and we understand that the same laws of chemistry 16:01 and physics operate throughout the universe. 16:03 So if it's impossible, it's impossible anywhere 16:06 in the universe for it to happen. 16:08 Well, it seems to me that's just really kicking the can 16:10 further out into the universe. 16:12 And that's what they're really doing. 16:14 That's a good question, Dr. Ashton, because 16:16 I met someone, a neurosurgeon, and I felt quite intimidated 16:20 talking to this person because he was using all kinds of terms 16:23 that I didn't understand. 16:25 But I asked him the basic question, because he's a 16:26 firm believer in evolution, and I asked him, 16:29 that no one has ever observed life coming from non-life. 16:35 And he brought out the same reason that you said, 16:37 that it's actually not part of the evolution model. 16:40 But he still wanted to answer, and he said there's been 16:43 many calculations done on this topic, 16:46 and actually this is the most mathematical probable 16:50 solution that we have. 16:52 Now I read in your book in the third chapter, you give 16:55 some of the mathematics behind the theory, 16:58 and that they far surpass the commonly accepted 17:03 view within science of what is possible. 17:08 And they far exceed that number. 17:10 Why is it then that there is still this consensus 17:14 among scientists that even though it's far beyond what 17:18 they accept would be possible, that still, 17:20 "No, it's possible enough." 17:22 How come that scientific numbers are clashing, but 17:26 we don't hear about it? 17:28 Sure, well I mean, I can't speak for how these guys 17:31 actually think on the basis of that, but it's got to be 17:34 people that deny God. 17:37 So Francis Collins, for example, chemist that headed up the 17:43 Human Genome Program, in a debate that he had 17:46 with Richard Dawkins, he said, "Well, you know, 17:50 God has to have started life. 17:52 You know, that's the only possible explanation we have." 17:56 And it's quite clear that these other scientists, they still 18:00 want to keep God out of it. 18:01 And their argument probably goes along the lines, 18:03 "Well, we're here, so life must have started." 18:06 Because they don't want to accept the possibility that 18:10 there is a supernatural Creator intelligence outside us. 18:16 And so they're clinging to the hope that one day 18:21 we will somehow discover some miraculous thing there. 18:25 Or, you know, again if you go down the lines of Thomas Nagel, 18:31 Professor Thomas Nagel at the University of New York, 18:33 atheist philosopher, he essentially says, "Well, maybe 18:38 the cosmos itself has this power to self-organize itself." 18:42 But really, what he's saying is, he's not comfortable with God, 18:46 but really all the evidence is pointing that there's something 18:49 identical to God out there that he calls, 18:51 like some sort of mind in the cosmos. 18:54 And so really, when we get to these highly intelligent guys 18:58 that are really deep thinkers, they recognize this. 19:01 That actually there must be a God, 19:03 but they don't want to call it God. 19:05 They want to sort of bring it down to 19:06 some other physical entity. 19:08 Is that like the God particle that they're trying to discover? 19:12 Or is that off topic? 19:14 Oh no, no, these are all just sort of comments. 19:18 The God particle really is nothing to do with God. 19:20 But this is the whole idea that somehow we will 19:24 find some mathematical, some quantum mechanical 19:28 explanation that enabled these amazing codes 19:34 to somehow rise in a meaningful way. 19:36 Because not only do we have the code and the code reader, 19:39 but it's got to match. 19:41 You know, so if I speak to you in Latvian, or something, 19:44 and I say the word, "zivis," you know... 19:47 No, I don't even know what you're talking about. 19:48 That's right. 19:49 But my best friend in school would understand that, 19:51 that it meant, "fish," you know. 19:52 So unless you're programmed with the code to understand 19:55 the code, it's not going to work. 19:56 And so, the evidence is overwhelming 20:00 that codes require an intelligent design. 20:04 They can't arise by chance. 20:07 And to have a code reader machine, it's just so complex 20:10 in terms of its molecular structure alone. 20:13 And the other thing is too, that these structures that are 20:17 formed require chemical reactions that don't occur 20:21 in nature by themselves. 20:24 They only occur, many of them like the synthesis of enzymes, 20:27 and this sort of thing, they only occur 20:30 in the protected structure of a living cell. 20:33 So they can't form in nature. Nature will break them down. 20:37 We've got ultraviolet lights, we've got, yes, we've got water 20:41 that will dissolve these longer polymers and break them down. 20:45 All these sort of things. 20:46 So again, when we look at the environmental scenario, 20:49 it's all against it. 20:51 You know, scientists attempt to come up with 20:54 solutions like, well maybe the molecules adsorbed 20:58 on the surface of a clay particle and they were sort of 21:00 somehow enabled to move around on the clay crystals 21:03 and order themselves. 21:05 But really, they're clutching at straws 21:06 when they look at the probability, and they forget 21:09 that, hang on, you don't need just one or two 21:11 of these long molecules. 21:12 You need millions to come together 21:15 and to form these structures. 21:16 So John, you mentioned probability a few times. 21:19 So can you just run through with us, how would you 21:23 calculate the probability that, say, a protein molecule 21:28 or a DNA molecule, how do you calculate the probability 21:31 that that could have arisen by chance? 21:33 Which would kind of give us a handle 21:35 on the probabilities we're looking at here. 21:37 How would you go about doing that calculation? 21:40 Okay, well it's probably a bit hard for me to do 21:42 without having a whiteboard or something to explain it. 21:44 But let's say that we wanted to order, say, 21:47 a hundred amino acids in order. 21:49 And these, you know, a simple gene generally is 21:51 about a thousand amino acids. 21:53 And so, when you look at the probabilities of lining up 21:57 a hundred amino acids, and there's about twenty types of 22:00 amino acids, and you do the calculations, 22:02 you come with a power of about 10 to the power of 30. 22:06 You know, which is a massive number. 22:07 And then you've got to order all the different numbers 22:12 of amino acids, the fact that you can have twenty different 22:15 types of amino acids, they can be all different combinations. 22:18 You know, imagine twenty of these in the alphabet, 22:21 how many ways you can arrange it. 22:22 It's a huge number, it's about 10 to the power of 130. 22:25 So we're already up to 10 to the power of 160. 22:28 And then we've got to have the fact that all those proteins, 22:31 and proteins can be made in either 22:33 right or left handed versions, they must all be 22:35 left handed versions. 22:37 The right handed ones are poisonous. 22:38 And they're going to kill the organism, for a start. 22:41 And the power of that, when you do the calculations, 22:44 will come out about 10 to the power of 30. 22:48 And so, when you add those up, you're already up to about 22:51 10 to the power of 190, thereabouts. 22:55 And yet, impossibility is something greater than 22:58 10 to the power of 150, from the philosophical point of view 23:01 when we look at the chances of something happening 23:04 in the universe. 23:06 We say that anything with a chance less than 23:09 1 in 10 to the 150 is defined as impossible, 23:12 generally speaking by mathematicians. 23:14 So already, just forming a gene that was only 23:17 a hundred amino acids lined up is already in that area. 23:23 So when you have an organism, the simplest organism 23:26 requiring hundreds of these that are going to be longer, 23:29 it just blows it right out. 23:31 Never mind the probability of forming something like a 23:33 ribosome, which is extremely complex in its structure. 23:37 So when we look at the math, and it's straight forward math, 23:41 so we know the probability occurs because these reactions 23:44 are random chemical reactions. 23:46 So the laws of probability apply very strongly. 23:50 Dr. Ashton, I was wondering, with the mathematical 23:53 improbabilities being about 10 to the 150, 23:56 and I'm not sure if it's correct or not, but is the current 24:00 understanding of how many particles there are in the 24:02 universe increasing? 24:04 And will that increase to the point where the 24:05 probability will even out? 24:07 Okay, so this is a very interesting theory, of course. 24:10 Is the universe continuing to expand? 24:14 So is space and time expanding, or space expanding? 24:18 So this theory is based on assuming there is 24:20 a fourth dimension, which again hasn't been ever measured. 24:23 But let's assume that it is expanding 24:26 just in three dimensions. 24:29 Is new matter being added? 24:31 That's the thing. 24:32 If new matter isn't being added, then there's no more 24:35 atoms being added to the material. 24:37 So is new material actually being synthesized by energy? 24:41 So energy and matter must be conserved together. 24:46 So I suppose if you have energy being converted 24:48 into more matter, then you'd say, 24:49 "Yes, there are more particles because we're converting 24:52 more energy into matter." 24:53 So there's an energy matter balance that's maintained. 24:56 But it's pretty big. The number is enormous. 24:59 So, you know. Mind blowing enormous, really. 25:02 And you know, one of the things you mentioned 25:04 in the book, John, is that the things which are being 25:07 taught in the textbooks is an 80 year old kind of model, 25:12 which seems, you know, quite dated, if I might say so. 25:16 Blair, did you have any other questions 25:18 on those kind of topics? 25:19 Yeah, I guess the fact that these scientists are operating 25:24 off an 80 year old model, I guess, why are they doing that? 25:29 Why aren't they open to seeing some of the more 25:32 updated models and information that you've been sharing today? 25:36 Well, I think there's a growing number of scientists 25:39 now that are recognizing this and that are 25:42 certainly coming out and saying it. 25:43 And hence that website that I mentioned earlier 25:47 where over a thousand scientists now 25:50 with qualifications in the biological fields, 25:52 doctorates in the biological fields, 25:55 have put their name down saying, "We're now skeptical." 25:58 Particularly that Darwin's theory can explain 26:00 the origin of life. 26:02 You'd expect that people would just, you know, 26:04 scientists would be eager to discover this new information. 26:08 ~ Oh well, definitely. 26:09 I mean, one scientist, Dr. Eugene Koonin 26:12 who holds a leading research position, 26:14 I think, with the National Institute of Health in the U.S., 26:18 he points out, you know, we've got major problems 26:21 with the origin of life. 26:22 Like, he says you've got a big problem 26:24 with the DNA code arising. 26:26 Then how do you explain the ribosome? 26:29 And so, you know, he's one of the top biologists 26:31 and geneticists in the world. 26:32 So these top scientists are recognizing it, 26:35 but it's not getting out to the students. 26:37 So I think I may have read somewhere where 26:39 one of the other guys in an editorial somewhere 26:43 on a blog commented, "Hey Eugene, don't say these things. 26:46 You know, we don't want our students to know." 26:48 And this is the thing that really gets to me. 26:50 The students aren't being told. 26:52 We've got a major, major problem. 26:55 That there's no possible explanation for a 26:58 mechanical origin of life. 27:00 Life is supernatural. 27:01 We are evidence of the existence of a supernatural God. 27:06 You know, you might have been really wanting to join us 27:08 here as we've discussed this fascinating topic. 27:12 Well the good news is, you can. 27:13 If you go to any online book store right around the world, 27:17 you can order Dr. John Ashton's book, Evolution Impossible. 27:20 You can read through the chapters and you can be 27:22 one step ahead of us. 27:23 Isn't that amazing. 27:25 But what an exciting journey to dive into the living cell. 27:28 And it is fascinating to realize that the very thing that 27:30 Darwin did not understand could not have arisen 27:33 by chance or evolution. 27:35 It makes you stop and wonder, is evolution really possible? 27:38 That's the question that we're looking at in this series, 27:41 Evolution Impossible. 27:42 Join us next time as we explore an essential part 27:45 of Darwin's theory: mutations. 27:48 We look forward to seeing you then. |
Revised 2020-02-13